How Date Palm Pollen boosts fertility, protects against breast, prostate cancers

 

Previous studies indicated that P. dactylifera contain estradiol and flavonoid components that have positive effects on the sperm quality. It has long been believed that date palm increase the sexual ability in man.

Phytochemical studies of P. dactylifera pollen grains revealed the presence of steroidal saponin glycoside. In another study the results showed that date extract caused a significant increase in sperm cell concentration (total count) and motility, on other hand P. dactylifera pollen extract decreases sperm cell count but increases the percentage of motile sperm.

 

The researchers on sperm quality wrote: “Furthermore, administration of the pollen grains extract caused a decrease in epididymal sperm with tail abnormalities that would interfere with sperm motility and the highest dose retained normal epididymal sperm number. These findings suggested the preventive role of pollen grains against the chemotherapeutic-induced infertility in males.”

 

Pollen grains carry the male genetic material, by a variety of means, for gamogenesis in the plant kingdom. Pollen applications in the rites, and its uses in traditional and herbal medicine, have been recorded throughout history. They have been used in the treatment of sexual incapacity and weaknesses in the Arab World. Suspension of P.dactylifera pollen is herbal mixture that is widely used as a folk remedy for curing male infertility in traditional medicine. The male flowers of date palm are also eaten directly by people as a fresh vegetable to enhance fertility.

Others studies indicate that date palm ameliorates gastric ulcer and the dry fruits have immuno-stimulant activity for mothers after child-birth and invalids.

 

The researchers added: “These findings suggest the preventive role of the pollen grains against the chemotherapeutic-induced infertility in males. In another study the results show that P. dactylifera pollen extract decreases sperm cell count but increases the percentage of motile sperm in male guinea pig. Oral administration of P. dactylifera pollen suspension at doses of 120 and 240 mg/kg body weight improved the sperm count, morphology and DNA quality with a concomitant increase in the weights of testis and epididymis. In another study, it has been looked into the antioxidant and hypolipidemic effects of pollen extracts (cernitins) on male rabbits and Wister rats.

“They demonstrated the reduction of malondialdehyed (MDA), total cholesterol, and triglyceride content under the influence of cernitins, indicating their antioxidant properties. Also, Al-Shagrawi showed that the existence of some flavonoids, such as quercetin, rutin and β-amirin in the pollen grains, plays a role in preventing the peroxidation of fatty acid in the body. In several studies a close relationship between pollen antioxidant bioactivity and phenolic compounds has been reported.

 

“Carotenoids such as beta-carotene and lycopene also form an important component of the antioxidant defense. Beta-carotenes protect the plasma membrane against lipid peroxidation. Nass-Arden et al., concluded that lipid peroxidation activity has a major role in loss of sperm motility during time of incubation. Other results reported that rutin and quercetine have been recognized to act against apoptosis (programmed cell death). Therefore, P. dactylifera pollen may protect the sperm against apoptosis leading to increase the percentage of normal sperm form.

“In vitro studies showed that vitamins E and C are major chain– breaking antioxidants in sperm membranes and appears to have a dose dependent protective effect and this may be the role of P. dactylifera pollen when added through activation program in vitro. It is concluded from the results of the present study that adding the 20 per cent P. dactylifera pollen to the culture medium of the in vitro sperm activation leads to an improvement in the sperm motility in vitro.”

Saudi Arabian and Egyptian researchers from King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, and Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt, found that suspension of date palm pollen (DPP) protects against atypical prostatic hyperplasia (APH) is a pseudoneoplastic lesion that can mimic prostate adenocarcinoma because of its cytologic and architectural features.

However, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a hormone- and age-related disease, characterized by histological changes and variable increases in prostatic size.

 

In these prostate diseases, APH and BPH, there is an imbalance between prostate cell growth and apoptosis. This imbalance is complex and influenced by factors that stimulate proliferation and minimize cell apoptosis such as growth factors, cytokines and steroid hormones.

 

The researchers wrote: “Results of the present study showed that administration of Date Palm Pollen Suspension (DPPS) and the alcoholic extract (DPPE) has ameliorated the histopathological changes and pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in APH-induced rats in a dose dependent manner as well as the inflammatory score in a non-dose dependent manner. These findings are in agreement with that of Ito et al.. They reported that cernilton, the water soluble fraction of pollens extract of different plants, produced histological evidence of epithelial cell atrophy and significant reduction in the size of ventral and dorsal lobes of prostate in mature Wistar rats. These effects may be due to the anti-inflammatory activity of the DPP. In the context of chronic inflammation and expression of proinflammatory cytokines, IL-6 is one of the major physiologic mediators of acute phase reaction that influence immune responses and inflammatory reactions.

“Pollen extract contains five different phytosterols and a biological active peptide that can influence the intracellular metabolism in biological systems. Pollen extract showed a decrease in the leucocyte number in the prostatic expressate in 59 per cent of all cases. The water-soluble fraction attenuated the inflammatory response in experimental animals. The in vitro experiments suggested that GBX (an acetone-soluble cernitin pollen extract) could be either a smooth muscle relaxant or a potent cyclo-oxygenase and lipoxygenase inhibitor.

 

Creadit to:

http://chrnigeria.org/new/?p=44

http://www.journal-inflammation.com/content/8/1/40

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Date palm pollen may cure infertility, ulcer

 

Before  now, the medicinal and health benefit of Date palm has been more of folklore with little or no scientific evidence. But recent animal studies indicate that Date palm pollen seems to cure infertility and chemotherapeutic-induced infertility in male reproductive system by improving the quality of sperm parameters.

Others studies indicate that Date palm ameliorates gastric ulcer and the dry fruits have immuno-stimulant activity for mothers after child birth and invalids.

 

Commonly called Date palm, Phoenix dactylifera belongs to to the plant family Palmae. To the French it is dattier, vrai dattier (true date) or palmier dattier. It is tamareira (the palm) or tamaras (the fruit) in Portuguese.

In Nigeria, Date palm is called balah (the fruit), nakhl attamr (crushed dates), nakhla (the tree or the fruit) in Arabic-Shuwa. It is tyeet in Birom; dibino in Bura; agiga in Ebira-Etuno; ukuen in Edo (Elugbe), eyop inuen in Efik; dibinoohi in Ful-Fulfulde; dabino in Gwandara-cancara; debino in Karshi; debino in Koro; debino in Nimbia; dibino in Toni. In Hausa language, the very small fruit is called akaskas, large fruit (alaskas), the best of Azben dates (alakkan), black dates (bakin dabiino), the tree or fruit (dabiino) and the fruit (dabiinuwaaa). It is ikekeleku in Igala, dibino in Kanuri and dobina in Nupe.

 

A botanist at the University of Lagos, Akoka, Prof. Oluwatoyin Ogundipe, says Dates are native to the Persian Gulf area. "They can grow in clusters of up to 200 dates, weighing up to 12 kilogramme. The date palm is considered a symbol of fertility", he says.

In folk medicine practices, Dates are usually used as a "tonic" or "aphrodisiac" remedy. The flower of the plant is used as a purgative. Experimentally, date extracts have been shown to increase sperm count in guinea pigs and to enhance spermatogenesis and increase the concentration of testosterone, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteininzing hormone (LH) in rats. The pollen grains of date palm have been used in Arabian countries to improve fertility in women as well.

The folklore uses of Date palm are supported by a study published in Iran Journal of Medical Science. The study concludes: "Date palm pollen seems to cure male infertility by improving the quality of sperm parameters. However, further studies are needed to see its beneficial effects in man".

 

The study is titled "Effect of Phoenix dactylifera Pollen on Sperm Parameters and Reproductive System of Adult Male Rats".

The Phoenix dactylifera date palm pollen (DPP) is reportedly used in the traditional medicine for male infertility.

However, the Iranian study was the first to scientifically determine the effects of orally administered DPP on the reproductive system of adult male rats.

 

Fifty Sprague-Dawley rats were maintained according to standard laboratory conditions. They were divided into five groups (10 in each group)) and received daily gavages of aqueous suspensions DPP containing 30, 60, 120 and 240 mg/kg, for 35 consecutive days. At the end the sperm was collected from ductus deferens (sperm duct) under anaesthesia (painkiller) and their numbers, motility, and morphology were determined under light microscopy.

 

The DNA integrity or denaturation was also evaluated by acridine orange staining. The weight of the testis and reproductive appendages was also determined, and after tissue processing, their histology was studied by light microscope.

The results of comparative evaluation between control and experimental groups revealed that consumption of DPP suspensions improved the sperm count, motility, morphology, and DNA quality with a concomitant increase in the weights of testis and epididymis(is a structure within the scrotum attached to the backside of the testis.

 

Maturation and storage of sperm occur in the epididymis). It did not significantly affect the weight of the prostate and the seminal vesicle (a structure in the male that is about five centimetres -two inches- long and is located behind the bladder and above the prostate gland) or the histology of the reproductive tissues.

 

The researchers concludes; "date palm pollen seems to cure male infertility by improving the quality of sperm parameters. However, further studies are needed to see its beneficial effects in man".

 

Another study titled, "Protective Effects of Phoenix dactylifera (Date Palm) Pollen Grains against Chemotherapeutic-induced Infertility in Mammals," suggests an essential preventive role of the pollen grains against the chemotherapeutic-induced infertility in male reproductive system.

 

The researchers include: Karima Mohamed, Hanadi Ali, Falwa Ali, Fatima Nasser, Rokaya Mohamed, Shamma Sultan and Amr Amin of the Biology Department, United Arab Emirate University,

 

The study investigated the reproductive protective effects of pollen grains of local Phoenix dactylifera, which is widely known in the Middle East for its potential medicinal effects.

 

Water extract of pollen grains administered by oral route to mice at doses of 250 and 500mg kg-1 significantly inhibit the cisplatin-induced genotoxicity. Cisplatin is a widely used anticancer drug that has a negative effect on fertility through damaging key cells needed for spermatogenesis.

 

At histopathological level, a significant recovery of the testis histology was observed in animals administered with pollen grains prior to cisplatin treatment.

 

Furthermore, administration of the pollens' extract caused a decrease in epididymal sperm with tail abnormalities that would interfere with sperm motility, and the highest dose retained normal epididymal sperm number.

Researchers have also established the ameliorative effect of dates on ethanol-induced gastric ulcer in rats.

The results of the study by A.A. Al-Qarawi, H. Abdel-Rahman, B.H. Ali, H.M. Mousa and S.A. El-Mougy of the Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, King Saud University, Al-Gaseem Branch, Buraydah, Al-Gaseem, Saudi Arabia, indicated that the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of the date fruit and, to a lesser extent, date pits, were effective in ameliorating the severity of gastric ulceration and mitigating the ethanol-induced increase in histamine and gastrin concentrations, and the decrease in mucin gastric levels.

 

According to the study published in Journal of Ethnopharmacology, the ethanolic undialysed extract was more effective than the rest of the other extracts used. It is postulated that the basis of the gastro-protective action of date extracts may be multi-factorial, and may include an anti-oxidant action.

 

The researchers write: "The present work aimed at testing, in a rat model of ethanol-induced gastric ulceration, a local folk medicinal claim that dates are beneficial in gastric ulcers in humans. Aqueous and ethanolic undialysed and dialysed extracts from date fruit and pits were given orally to rats at a dose of 4 ml/kg for 14 consecutive days.

"On the last day of treatment, rats were fasted for 24 hours, and were then given ethanol, 80 percent (1 ml/rat) by gastric incubation to induce gastric ulcer. Rats were killed after one hour of ethanol exposure, and the incidence and severity of the ulceration were estimated, as well as the concentrations of gastrin in plasma, and histamine and mucus in the gastric mucosa. A single group of rats that were fasted for 24 hours, was administered orally with lansoprazole (30 mg/kg), and was given 80 percent ethanol as above, eight hour thereafter, served as a positive control".

 

Researchers have also shown immuno-stimulant activity of dry fruits and plant materials including dates used in Indian traditional medical system for mothers after child- birth and invalids.

 

Puri, A; Sahai, R; Singh, K L; Saxena, R P; Tandon, J S; and Saxena, K C in a study published in Journal of Ethnopharmacology studied for immunostimulant activity of products of certain plants given to mothers after child birth or to invalids using the macrophage migration index (MMI) as a parameter of macrophage activation and cell-mediated immunity and haemagglutinating antibody (HA) titres and plaque-forming cell (PFC) counts as parameters of humoral immunity.

Feeding of Prunus amygdalus (Almond) and Buchanania lanzan (Chirronji) significantly stimulated both CMI and humoral immunity in BALB/c mice as evidenced by the enhancement of MMI, HA titres, and PFC counts.

Euryale ferox (Tel makhana), Phoenix dactylifera (Chhohara) and Zingiber officinale (Sonth), however, stimulated humoral immunity to a greater extent than CMI. The observation provides scientific basis for feeding the products of above plants to mothers after child-birth and to invalids with a relatively poor immune status.

 

According to The Useful Plants of Tropical West Africa by H. M. Burkill, the fruit is added with Capsicum (Solanaceae) to locally brewed beer (Hausa giya) in Nigeria to make beer, so it is said, less intoxicating.

In Northern Nigeria, dates with bran and seeds of Sterculia tomentosa (Sterculiaceae) are given to young heifers to improve fecundity. Fecundity, derived from the word fecund, generally refers to the ability to reproduce. In biology and demography, fecundity is the potential reproductive capacity of an organism or population, measured by the number of gametes (eggs), seed set or asexual propagules.

 

Fecundity is under both genetic and environmental control, and is the major measure of fitness. Fecundation is another term for fertilisation.

A nutritionist at the Nigerian Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), Yaba, Lagos, Dr. Chinyere Rosemary Anyanwu, "the nutritional value of the relatively easy-to-store date fruit is high in sugar - comprising up to 70 per cent of the fruit." She says a single serving of date contains 31 grammes of carbohydrates, making it a powerhouse of energy. "Eating dates and drinking water is an ideal way to replenish the body's need for potassium."

 

Anyanwu explains: "Dates are also good sources of iron, potassium, magnesium (important for use of voluntary muscles), sulphur, copper, calcium and phosphorus (important in building muscles and neuro-tissues). Dates contain 13.8 per cent water and about three per cent protiens as well as at least six vitamins including a small amount of vitamin C, and vitamins B1, thiamine, B2, riboflavin, nicotinic acid (niacin) and vitamin A.

 

"Other minerals and salts that are found in various proportions include boron, cobalt, fluorine, phosphorous, sodium and zinc. Additionally, the seeds contain aluminum, cadmium, chloride and lead in various proportions. Dates contain elemental fluorine that is useful in protecting teeth against decay.

 

Selenium, another element believed to help prevent cancer and important in immune function, is also found in dates. The protein in dates contains 23 types of amino acids, some of which are not present in popular fruits such as oranges, apples and bananas. Dates contain 0.5-3.9 per cent pectin, which may have important health benefits".

A homeopath and professor of Alternative medicine, Osmond Ifeanyi Onyeka told The Guardian that the fruit, because of its tannin content, is used medicinally as a detersive and astringent in intestinal troubles.

Onyeka explains: "In the form of an infusion, decoction or paste is administered as a treatment for sore throat, colds, bronchial catarrh. It is taken to relieve fever, cystisis, gonorrhoea, oedema, liver and abdominal troubles. The seed powder is an ingredient in a paste given to relieve ague.

 

A gum that exudes from the wounded trunk is used for treating diarrhoea and genito-urinary ailments in India. The roots are used for toothache. It has been reported that damaged dates that are not fit for human consumption, when added to animal feed, can increase the flow of milk in farm animals.

 

"The invert sugar in dates is immediately absorbed by the body without being subjected to the digestion that ordinary sugar undergoes. Date consumers in Saharan areas are known to have the lowest rate of cancer diseases, a fact attributed to the magnesium found in dates. With only one milligramme of sodium per 100 gramme, dates are good food for those on a low sodium diet.

 

"Studies have shown that dates contain certain stimulants which strengthen the muscles of the uterus in the last months of pregnancy. This assists in the dilation of the uterus at the time of delivery. Dates are also recommended for women in the postpartum period and during lactation due to its value as a nutritious, high-energy food.

"A medical study cited in the British Medical Journal found that placing a sugary substance in the mouth of a baby reduces the sensation of pain".

 

Last year, Saudi researchers sought to assess the ability of date flesh and pits to prevent some of the toxic actions of carbon tetrachloride on the liver in animals, the latter being a model for acute liver hepatitis. Treatment with aqueous extract of date flesh or pits significantly reduced ill effects and suggests the induced liver damage can be ameliorated by treatment of extracts from date flesh or pits.

 

Kuwaiti researchers carried out a preliminary study for the first time on date fruits' antioxidant and anti-mutagenic properties 'in vitro'. Results indicated that antioxidant and anti-mutagenic activity in date fruit is quite potent and implicates the presence of compounds with potent free-radical-scavenging activity.

 

However, there need for caution. Some studies have shown that edible dates can be a source of endogenous yeasts and filimentous fungi reported in opportunistic infections involving skin or in immuno-compromised patients.

It emphasises the importance of the common practice of washing hands following the consumption of these fruits by hand.

 

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Doum (Hyphaene thebaica) is an African palm tree, common in Upper Egypt, originally native to the Nile valley, bearing an edible fruit which is glubose-quandrangular , about 6 x 5 cm with a shinny orange-brown to deep chestnut skin (epicarp).The rind (mesocarp) in some palm is unedible but of other it is very palatable , highly aromatic and sweet with a taste like ginger bread hence the English name. When eaten it serves as vermifuges and parasite expellant ( Burkill,1997 ). The chloroform extract of the fruits improve spermatic count of male rats at low concentration (Hetta and Yassin 2006) but decrease it at high concentration(Hetta et al., 2005) .
It was considered sacred by the Ancient Egyptians and its seeds were found in many pharaoh's tombs e.g Tutankhamun's tomb (Hetta et al., 2005).

The fruit has nutritional and pharmacologic properties. Doum extracts are being used in the treatment of bilharziasis, haematuria, bleeding especially after child birth (Adaya et al., 1977) and also as hypolipidemic and hematinic suspension (Kamis et al., 2003). The tea of Doum is popular in Egypt and believed to be good for diabetes. It has been used by Egyptian people as a folk medicine for treatment of hypertension (Hetta et al., 2005).

Roots of doum were used in treatment of Bilharziasis, while the resin of the tree has demonstrated, diuretic, diaphoretic properties and also recommended for tap worm as well as against animal bites (L.Boulos ,1983).
Sharaf et al. (1972) showed that the aqueous extract of Doum stimulated the contractions of frog's heart and rat intestine but inhibited uterine contractions in rats. On the arterial blood pressure, the extract proved to be capable of lowering the blood pressure both in normotensive and hypertensive anaesthetised dogs. Meanwhile, Hetta and Yassin (2006) reported that constituents of the Doum exhibited a significant decrease in serum total cholesterol and Non-HDL cholesterol in rats; this can reduce the risk of atherosclerosis and subsequent cardiovascular diseases.

The use of some plants as medicinal plant is due to the presence of flavonoids and saponins (Waterhouse 2003). Doum was reported to contain important substances including saponins, tannins, and flavonoids (Dosumu et al., 2006); hence the use of Doum, which is rich in flavonoids and saponins, in folk medicine is not surprising.
Oral administration of grape flavonoids (polyphenols) has been shown to inhibit platelet function (Freedman et al., 2001), and reduce thrombus formation (Demrow et al., 1995). At the vascular wall level, polyphenols exert vasorelaxant effects (Zenebe et al., 2003), inhibit the adhesion of monocytes to the endothelium (Carluccio et al., 2003; Badía et al., 2004), and improve endothelial function (Stein et al., 1997). Finally, polyphenols have been shown to reduce the development of atherosclerosis in animal models (Stocker and O’Halloran 2004; Waddington et al., 2004).

 

Credit to:

http://ispub.com/IJAM/7/1/5592

 

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Fatty Acids In The Nut Of The Turkana Doum Palm (Hyphaene coriacea )

Michael N. I. Lokuruka

Senior Lecturer, Department of Dairy and Food Science and Technology Egerton University, P. O. Box 536-20115, Egerton, Kenya E-mail: lokuruka@hotmail.com, Telephone 254-51-2217639

Code Number: nd08013

ABSTRACT

The doum palms are important noncultivated fruit-plants in the arid and semiarid districts of Turkana, Samburu and Marsabit of Kenya. The plant has many domestic and commercial uses. However, despite the central place it occupies in the diets of all pastoral age groups living along the banks of the major rivers, its fatty acid profile is lacking in the literature. This study was conducted in order to document its lipid profile. Lipid extracts of the nut of the Turkana doum palm, Hyphaene coriacea, were obtained and the major fatty acids in the mesocarp and kernel oil extracts were determined. It was shown that the nut has an oil content of 0.4 and 10.3% in the mesocarp and kernel, respectively. The kernel and mesocarp lipid extracts contained 55 and 66% long-chain saturated fatty acids, C12-C16, and 76 and 66% total saturated fatty acids, respectively. The predominant fatty acids in declining order are lauric, oleic, myristic, palmitic and linoleic acid in the mesocarp, and lauric, oleic, capric, myristic, palmitic, linoleic and caprylic in the kernel. Both kernel and mesocarp oil extracts contained traces of stearic acid and no linolenic acid. Its hexane extract is therefore a typical lauric oil. The kernel oil extract had total monounsaturated fatty acids/total saturated fatty acids, total polyunsaturated fatty acids/total saturated fatty acids and total unsaturated fatty acids/total saturated fatty acids ratios of 0.29, 0.03 and 0.31, respectively. Due to the higher unsaturation, the oil extracts of the Turkana doum palm nut may be less stable with respect to oxidative deterioration than coconut and palm kernel oils. The knowledge of the nutrient composition of indigenous food plants such as the Turkana doum palm is important for the purpose of educating the public on the nutritional value of indigenous food plants available in their localities and for the purposes of conservation. The fatty acid profile of the lipid extracts of the nut of the plant showed that 'eengol' is more unsaturated than coconut and palm kernel oils due to its higher oleic acid content. In this respect, it may be healthier to consume it in comparison to coconut and palm kernel oils.

Keywords: Hyphaene coriacea, Turkana, fatty acids

INTRODUCTION

Palms belong to the family Palmae (Arecaceae), which is made up of over 217 genera and 2500 species [1]. Among the palms are the African doum palms, represented by the genus Hyphaene, the plant of interest in the current study. All the palms in the family Palmae are chiefly tropical trees with a long columnar trunk bearing large extensive pinnate or palmate leaves [1]. The Turkana doum is costapalmate with an extensive aerial branching of its leaves [2]. It belongs to the African doum palms, which thrive naturally in many countries of tropical and subtropical Africa [3, 4]. The African doum palms are also found in the drier parts of South Africa, Namibia, Burkina Faso, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, etc. [1]. The date tree (Phoenix dactylifera) is a member of the palm family in North Africa and in many countries of the Middle East including Iraq, Iran and Israel. Hyphaene compressa and H. coriacea are the two species of the African doum palm that are found in Kenya, although there are approximately 26 species of the Hyphaene genus in Africa currently [4].

The fruits are oval, shiny, and red to orange in colour, with an average length and diameter of 6 and 5 cm, respectively [2]. The pericarp and the outer coat of the endocarp are inedible, while the mesocarp and kernel flesh are edible. The energy available from consumption of the edible portions of the nut is approximately 1300 Kcal/100 g [2]. The local people commonly use the name 'eengol' to refer to both the doum palm tree and its fruit. In the current experiment, the lipid extracts from the mesocarp and kernel were obtained and the oil content determined. Both the kernel and mesocarp oil extracts were used to determine the fatty acids in the two edible portions of the fruit. No reports of the fatty acids profile in the nut of the species Hyphaene compressa or H. coriacea were found in the literature.

The Turkana doum palm plays many social and commercial roles in Turkana district. The stems of the tree are used as building material for housing, while the leaves are used as thatch for roofing houses and for making a large range of household items that include sleeping mats, carpets and table mats. One of the best selling handicrafts that are made from the leaves of the Turkana doum palm are laundry baskets which are merchandized in many urban centres in Kenya. There are indications that the unsustainable use of the plant over the last three decades has led to deforestation in many riverine areas formerly occupied by groves of the Turkana doum palm. There is a public realization that the loss of the Turkana doum palm could be disastrous for Turkana district, and, therefore, there is an apparent need to provide information on the various benefits of sustaining the plant in order to spur conservation efforts [2].

Due to the key role the Turkana doum palm plays in the commerce and the food supply in the Turkana District of Kenya, this study was done in order to determine the fatty acid composition of the nut to provide consumers with knowledge of its lipid composition. Also, studying the nature of fatty acids in the lipid extracts of eengol was important not only for Turkana, but also for other tropical areas of Africa, where members of the genus Hyphaene grow, and are used for food. This is also likely to be the first report of the fatty acids in the species Hyphaene coriacea, as the fatty acids profile of the nut of the plant were not available in the literature, although Hoebekke [5] provides the proximate composition and the content of the minerals calcium, phosphorus and iron in the mesocarp of H.compressa, but not the free fatty acids profile.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A reference standard of known fatty acids methyl esters (FAME) extracts can aid the identification of constituent fatty acids in a food sample. The nature of fatty acids in the lipid extract of our study was determined by gas liquid chromatography (GLC) by comparing the relative retention time of the eluants from ‘eengol' food products, with the retention time of similar fatty acids in the standard mixture of known fatty acids. A standard pure soybean oil containing about 10 µg/mL of fatty acids was esterified and run through a GLC to identify the elution times of its constituent fatty acids at a temperature of 200 oC at the injector port, a column temperature of 170 oC and a detector temperature of 250 oC. A sample of the esterified mesocarp and kernel oil extracts of 'eengol' were run under similar GLC conditions to give an idea of the nature of fatty acids in the samples relative to those in the soybean oil. After ascertaining the nature of fatty acids in the test samples a standard mixture of 8:0, 10:0, 12:0, 14:0, 16:0, 18:0, 20:0 and 16:1, 18:1, 18:2 and 18:3 (Department of Food Biosciences, University of Reading, Reading, U.K.) containing 10 ppm of each fatty acid was provided to test the efficiency of recovery. Pentaenoic and heptanoic acid (Sigma Chemical Co., Aberdeen, UK) were used as internal standards during fatty acid analysis.

Sample acquisition and storage

The sun-dried ripe fruits of the Turkana doum palm were shipped from Kenya by air to the Food Chemistry Laboratory at the Department of Food Biosciences, at the University of Reading in the United Kingdom. Ten days prior to the flight from Kenya to the United Kingdom (U.K.), doum palm materials were bought in the open-air market in Lodwarr, a town located in the Turkana District of Kenya, and stored at -10 degrees Celsius (oC) in the Food Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Dairy, Food Science and Technology at the Egerton University in Kenya. After the arrival of the doum palm materials in Reading in the U.K., they were stored at -20 oC until required for lipid extraction and fatty acid analysis. All chemicals used for the various analyses were analytical grade (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) unless otherwise stated.

Sample preparation

The red-coated fruits of the Turkana doum palm were scrapped with a hand rasp to remove the epicarp and expose the mesocarp. About 30 grammes (g) of the mesocarp from each of the four fruits was sliced off using a knife, and ground at high speed in a Waring blender (Model 32BL60, AS Catering Co., Dorset, England) for a minute. The nut was broken up to remove the kernel. The slices from the kernel were not blended to avoid the loss of oil during the blending process. Instead, they were cut into very thin slices on grease-proof paper and used for lipid extraction.

Lipid extraction

The standard International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) Method 2.302 was used for lipid exraction in the current experiment [6]. About 4 x 10 g samples each containing the mesocarp powder ('apinet') and the kernel, were measured into thimbles containing cotton wool, and were placed into 250-millilitre (mL) extraction flasks held in a lipid extraction electric assembly (Model BBHS, Grant Boekel, Bournemouth, England). One hundred and fifty mL analytical grade hexane (boiling point 60 oC) was added into each preweighed extraction flask. The samples were refluxed at gentle boiling for two hours. This was followed by re-extraction for two hours. The lipid extracts in the pre-weighed extraction flasks were evaporated in a rotary vacuum evaporator (Model RE300, Esslab, Essex, England) to remove the solvent, and dried in an air oven (Model 579, Elite Thermal Systems, Leicestershire, England) at 105 oC for two hours to constant weight. The lipid extracts were cooled in desiccators for about one hour before the flasks were weighed. The main lipid content (%) resulted from the mean weight of the four extracts obtained from the samples of the mesocarp powder ('apinet') and the slices of the kernel. The lipid extracts were used to determine the fatty acids profiles in the Turkana doum palm nut.

Esterification

The esterification of the lipid extracts obtained in this particular study was conducted according to the steps of the IUPAC Method 2.302 [6]. Three x 50 milligrammes (mg) lipid extracts (3 samples of each, the mesocarp flesh and the kernel) were dissolved in test tubes containing one mL of tetrahydrofuran and stored in a fume cupboard. Twenty 20 microgrammes (µg) of the internal standard mixture comprised of pentaenoic and heptaenoic acid was applied to each tube. Five mL of 0.5 molar (M) sodium methoxide in anhydrous methanol was added to each of the test tube mixtures, agitated, and kept in a water-bath maintained at 50 oC for 10 minutes. One mL of glacial acetic acid was added, followed by the addition of 5 mL of deionized distilled water and agitated. The esters (2 x 5 mL) from each test tube were extracted with hexane using a Pasteur pipette to separate the two layers. The top layer derived of hexane was dried on anhydrous sodium sulphate containing 10% of solid potassium bicarbonate and filtered through a Büchner funnel, before the solvent was removed in a rotary evaporator under reduced pressure. The methyl ester extract mixtures were combined for each of the two samples and the fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) were stored in brown, 50-mL volumetric flasks at -20 oC until needed for injection into the gas liquid chromatograph (GLC) (Model 204, Pye Unicam, Cambridge, England) for separating and identifying the constituent fatty acids.

Percentage recovery of esterified fatty acids in standards and 'eengol'

Standard curves of standard esterified saturated fatty acids 8:0-20:0 and 16:1, 18:1, 18:2 and 18:3 were prepared within a range of 1-50 parts per million (ppm) of each fatty acid. The data were used for linear regression analysis and correlation coefficients of 0.96-0.98 were obtained. To test for the efficiency of recovery of sample extracts and the standards, duplicate samples of a standard mixture containing 10 ppm of each fatty acid were esterified and extracted separately with and without the test samples. The chromatographic peak areas of the FAME of each fatty acid in the standard mixture (see the GLC method described below) were compared with their peak areas in the FAME from the spiked test samples). Unspiked 'eengol' products'were esterified, extracted and run through the GLC as the controls. The percent recoveries of the FAME of the standard fatty acids mixture ranged between 92 and 97%, while recoveries of 99% were achieved for the pentaenoic and heptanoate standards.

Identification of fatty acids by GLC

Three x 20 microlitres (µL) each of the two FAME sample extracts were injected into the GLC separately. The GLC was operated at a temperature of 200 oC at the injector port, the column temperature was maintained at 170 oC and the detector temperature at 250 oC. The Perkins 6 ft long, 4 mm i.d. glass column (Model 3920 Perkins Elmer, Boston, Mass., USA) used for the GLC, contained a stationary phase of 10% diethyl glycol succinate (DEGS) adsorbed on chromosorb W (100-120 mesh). The column was acid washed and silanised. The mobile phase was nitrogen gas run at 45 mL per minute. The rest of the GLC consisted of: 1) a photometric flame ionization detector (Model 204, Pye Unicam), 2) an amplifier (Model 202, Pye Unicam) and an integrator (Model 33904, Hewlett Packard, London, England). The peak areas for the fatty acids were obtained from the integrator and the percentage of each fatty acid in the ester extract was calculated as a percent of the total fatty acid content in the FAME (g/100 g of fatty acids). The percent content of each fatty acid in the two samples was the mean of three injections. The percent recoveries of the fatty acids in the extracts ranged from 73 to 90%. The detection limit of the GLC was 0.5% of fatty acids.

RESULTS

Fatty acid profile of the Turkana doum palm nut

As shown in Table 1, the predominant fatty acids in decline order included lauric, oleic, myristic, palmitic and linoleic in the mesocarp, and lauric, oleic, capric, myristic, palmitic, linoleic, and caprylic in the kernel. Both kernel and mesocarp oil extracts contained traces of stearic and no linolenic acid (Table 1).

The Turkana doum palm nut contained an oil content of 0.4 and 10.3% in the mesocarp and kernel, respectively. The kernel and mesocarp lipid extracts contained 54 and 66% long-chain saturated fatty acids (LCFA), C12-C16, and 76 and 66% total saturated fatty acids (SAFA), respectively. The content of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) (18:1) in the kernel and mesocarp was 22 and 31%, respectively. The polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) (18:2) content accounted for 3.2% and 2.0% of the fatty acids in the mesocarp and kernel, respectively. The kernel of the Turkana doum palm nut, canola and olive contain 31, 55 and 74% of oleic acid, respectively. Although the Turkana doum nut has less oleic acid as compare to canola and olive oils, it is nevertheless a better source of oleic acid than either coconut or palm kernel oil, which contain 6 and 11% of oleic acid, respectively (Table 2). Moreover, it has a higher unsaturation of 24% compared to 13 and 18% in coconut and palm kernel, respectively. The kernel oil extract of the Turkana doum palm nut had MUFA/SAFA, PUFA/SAFA and UFA/SAFA ratios of 0.29, 0.03 and 0.31, respectively (Table 3).

DISCUSSION

From Table 1, the experimental results show that the mesocarp of the nut of the Turkana doum palm is lower in oil than the kernel (0.4 vs. 10.3%). Generally, the mesocarp or the pulp of fruits contain 0.1-1.0% oil, excluding the avocados, palms and olives [7] and are therefore not as an important oil source as the kernel. Coconut and palm kernel contain 63 to 74% [7] and 44 to 58% [8] of oil, respectively. The main differences in the oil content of the coconut and the Turkana doum palm include the lower caprylic acid (8:0) (0.6%) content and the higher content of capric acid (10:0) (21.3%) in the kernel of the Turkana doum palm nut than in coconut kernel oil (7.5 and 6.0%), respectively [9]. The results also showed that the Turkana doum palm nut contains smaller amounts of the short-chain saturated fatty acids (SCFA, C2-C8), than coconut and palm. SCFA are associated with several health benefits of the colon mucosa and may play an important role in protecting against large bowel disease [10] and colon cancer [11].

The fatty acids with the highest concentrations in the kernel and mesocarp oil extracts of the Turkana doum palm nut included lauric and oleic acids. Since lauric acid is the largest fatty acid in the kernel of the Turkana doum palm nut as well as of the coconut (Cocos nucifera), the hexane extract of the Turkana doum palm nut is a typical lauric oil, similar to coconut oil [7]. Lauric, myristic and palmitic acids have been shown to be some of the most hypercholesterolemic dietary fatty acids [12]. The three nuts (that is, the Turkana doum palm, coconut and palm) are likely to contribute to hypercholesterolemia when regularly consumed in large quantities due to their considerable content of these particular fatty acids.

The mesocarp of the Turkana doum palm nut contains higher oleic acid content than the kernel (31 vs. 22%). This is advantageous to consumers since it is the mesocarp that is normally consumed. Oleic acid is the only monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) in the Turkana doum palm nut whereas traces of palmitoleic acid are present in the palm kernel and coconut oil extracts. All the three fruits contain substantial amounts of oleic acid. However, the kernel of the Turkana doum palm nut has a higher oleic acid content than the kernel oils of both, the palm and coconut (21.9, 11.4 and 5.8%, respectively (see Table 2). Oleic acid is the main MUFA in olive and canola oils, two oils whose global consumption continues to rise due to the claimed health benefits associated with their MUFA constituents. Replacement of dietary saturated fatty acids with oleic-rich diets has been shown to be as effective as the substitution with polyunsaturated fatty acids in lowering plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLC) levels [13]. Further, MUFA have the advantage of not simultaneously lowering high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLC) levels in hypercholesterolemic subjects [13, 14, 15]. In addition, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) has been demonstrated to inhibit the oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) [16]. It is therefore likely that the health benefits associated with MUFA may be obtained by regular consumption of the Turkana doum palm nut and its products.

The kernel of the Turkana doum palm nut, canola and olive contain 31, 55 and 74% of oleic acid, respectively [17]. Although the Turkana doum nut has less oleic acid as compare to canola and olive oils, it is nevertheless a better source of oleic acid than either coconut or palm kernel oil, which contain 6 and 11% of oleic acid, respectively [7]. Moreover, it has a higher unsaturation of 24% compared to 13 and 18% in coconut and palm kernel, respectively.

The divergent ratios of MUFA/SAFA and UFA (unsaturated fatty acids) /SAFA (see Table 3), reflect the lower oleic acid in the palm kernel and coconut oils, as mentioned above. The almost similar ratios of 0.03, 0.03 and 0.02 for PUFA/SAFA in the Turkana doum palm nut, the palm kernel oil and coconut oil, respectively, are due to the similar content of linoleic acid in the three nuts. In view of its higher unsaturation, the oil extract from the Turkana doum palm nut is likely to be relatively less stable to oxidative deterioration than coconut and palm kernel oils when stored under comparable conditions of temperature, relative humidity and oxygen uptake. Conditions such as elevated temperatures, increased oxygen uptake, high relative humidity, high unsaturation, and light, accelerate lipid peroxidation [18].

Due to the higher oleic and linoleic acid in the mesocarp oil extract of the mesocarp of the Turkana doum palm nut, it is prudent to encourage consumption of the fruit as is the current practice by all age groups, although consuming the kernel as well could be beneficial energywise due to its higher oil content. Linoleic acid (18:2n-6) is one of the two essential fatty acids (EFA), and is necessary for the metabolism of longer polyunsaturated fatty acids such as arachidonic and gamma linolenic acid, and is a precursor of the eicosanoids [19, 20]. Lack of EFA may lead to essential fatty acid deficiency (EFAD), whose symptoms include scaly dermatoses, reduced growth, fatty liver, increased basal metabolic rate, kidney deterioration, loss of hair, etc. [21, 22]. Due to the general nature of these symptoms, it is difficult to pinpoint them in the general population as being due to EFAD and not other causes. It is generally recommended that 2-3% of an adult's daily energy supply come from EFA [23]. For human infants this should preferably be 1% and up to 2% of energy as linoleic acid [22, 24]. It is recommended that it does not exceed 2% of energy in healthy adults [25]. These recommendations make EFAD unlikely to appear where there is access to adequate and varied food to meet metabolic requirements to maintain good health and well being. However, the symptoms are more likely to be observed where subjects go through periods of prolonged starvation or are on fat-free diets [26]. Turkana District is estimated to have 81% of the population with insufficient food and 74% living below the absolute poverty level [27]. It is therefore likely that some members of its population could show overt symptoms of EFAD.

The diets of most East African pastoralists have generally been shown to be low in energy and high in animal protein [28]. The calorie intake of Turkana pastoralists was estimated as 1430 and 1310 Kcal/person/day (or 1100 and 980 Kcal/day/person, respectively, excluding the males) in the wet and dry season, respectively [28]. A comparative estimate of energy intake for the Maasai of Tanzania was 1250 and 830 Kcal/person/day in the wet and dry season, respectively [29]. These figures are low, and are evidence of the seasonality of the low-energy foods available. The energy intake comes mainly from a low-energy, high-protein food, milk.

Since the Turkana doum palm nut can supply about 1300 Kcal/100 g of edible portions when consumed, it makes nutritional sense to encourage the use of the entire edible portions of the nut, despite its apparent inadequacy in energy. This may be beneficial in reducing energy deficiency among rural populations in the dry season, a period of food scarcity [2]. Similar to the majority of members of the palm family, the Turkana doum palm nut predominates in lauric, oleic and myristic acids.

CONCLUSION

Although the kernel of the Turkana doum palm nut has a higher oil content than the mesocarp (0.4 vs. 10.3%), it contains less oil (10.3%) than the coconut (63-74%) and palm kernel (4458%). Lauric and oleic acids are the largest fatty acids in both the kernel and mesocarp oil extracts of the Turkana doum palm nut. The particular nut has lower caprylic and higher capric acids in its kernel oil than the coconut, while both nuts contain similar amounts of palmitic and linoleic acids in their kernel oil extracts. 'Eengol' is more unsaturated than coconut and palm kernel oils due to its higher oleic acid content. Therefore, its oil extract may be less stable to peroxidation than coconut and palm kernel oils. The kernel oil extracts from the three nuts have many similarities in their constituent fatty acids as this work demonstrated. Similar to other members of the family Palmae, the Turkana doum palm nut contains substantial amounts of lauric, oleic and myristic acids.

 

Credit to:

http://www.bioline.org.br/request?nd08013

http://ispub.com/IJAM/7/1/5592

http://www.academicjournals.org/article/article1379491821_Abou-Elalla.pdf

https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20081016104713AAxApst

 

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